Turkish cuisine is at least as old and meaningful as Turkish history and it is one of the greatest in the world. However this is measured, one thing is clear: outside of Turkey, you can rarely enjoy exquisite Turkish cuisine. Certainly not the tradition of the Ottoman Sultan's palace kitchen, because their dishes are often very complex and, unlike e.g. French cuisine, customers are apparently not willing to pay for high-priced Turkish dishes. Today there is a risk that Turkish cuisine will lose its quality and meaning or become a commodity in the face of globalizing cuisine. Decorating a steak with gold leaf is just as little understanding for me as offering a hamburger for € 0.99. If 1 liter of milk costs significantly less than 1 liter of industrially produced dark sugar water, that's a sad imbalance.

I love Turkish food. Maybe that's because I grew up with this kitchen. My parents come from Karaman from deepest Anatolia in the heart of Turkey. Characterized by its agriculture, sheep and cattle breeding, the fertile soil and the sun. As a child, we always visited our relatives on our trips to Turkey. During this time there was neither tourism nor the Internet in this area and therefore little influence from outside. I have experienced times when my grandmothers still made the yogurt, the butter, the cheese and the tomato paste by their own with love. Eggplants, zucchini, tomatoes, cucumbers, olives, watermelons and honeydew melons, peaches, onions, peppers, lemons, oranges, grapes and much more could be bought directly from the local farmers. The pantries were not only filled with food, but also full of scents and aromas. In my childhood I was able to enjoy the honest, genuine and varied food in Turkey and I still enjoy it today. If I'm talking about honest, I don't mean the nut-flavored coffee for € 7.50, which some are willing to pay just to have their own name written on a cheap paper cup. When I speak about genuine, it is seasoned sparingly so as not to distort the taste of the individual foods. Turkish cuisine is a very versatile cuisine, which contrary to local opinion hardly uses garlic or cumin. And when I talk about varied food, I don't mean different pasta shapes combined with different sauces. But how many dishes the chefs are able to cook from a particular food. For example, more than 40 different eggplant dishes are counted in Turkish cuisine.

The dishes listed here are just one of many variations that have evolved over time in different regions. But the stories, tales, legends that are behind many Turkish dishes are identical. So also behind one of my favorite soups: Ezo Gelin Çorbası (= the soup of the bride Ezo).

The girl Zöhre was born in 1909 in the village of Uruş in the city of Gaziantep in Oğuzeli. Later, when it became famous for her beauty, she was called Ezo (= morning star). The name "Ezo Gelin" (= Ezo bride) was added later, after she got married. The story actually started very happily. She married the man she loved and had a very happy life. But like all immortal stories, this happiness doesn't last forever. Gossiping neighbors and blasphemers who had the happiness of both in mind destroyed the marriage. Ezo Gelin had to part with her great love and was alone again. Her beauty became more epic every day and she had many admirers, but none of them could win Ezo's heart. 6 years later she married her childhood sweetheart Memey. This marriage was concluded according to the Berdel method, which is rarely used today, i.e. Ezo's older brother also married Memey's sister at the time. After the marriage, Ezo Gelin and Memey moved to the Syrian city of Jarabulus near the Turkish city of Kozbaş. The two got along very well and had a good marriage. But after a while, besides poverty, hunger and love, Ezo felt a feeling that she had never experienced before - homesickness. Love passed and the longing for her home had taken her place. When Ezo Gelin went to Syria in 1936, she died 20 years later in 1956 at the age of 47 from tuberculosis. The famous soup "Ezo Gelin Çorbası" keeps making this story immortal. It is said that Ezo Gelin was as hardworking as she was beautiful. In Antep, during times of poverty, she had used ingredients for the known soup, that were available at home.

Her remains were brought back to Turkey in 1999, where she can "see" her city in Syria from the top of a mountain.

Thank you very much Ezo Gelin. How nice that you existed.

Enjoy reading and enjoy your meal or as you say in Turkish: Afiyet olsun!

Great empires have created great cuisines

The fertile land and the skill of the farmers and fishermen of the Turkish empire have combined with the enthusiasm and abilities of its chefs and home cooks to produce fine, tasty dishes that have ensured a place for Turkish food alongside French and Chinese as one of the three foremost examples of the culinary art in the world. During the course of its evolution from the Turkish tribes of Central Asia to the present day, Turkish cuisine has acquired an individual character which is expressed in the layout of the kitchen, the cooking utensils, the range of dishes and cooking methods, the presentation of food and serving customs. Every branch of cookery is treated as equally deserving of being rich in variety and succulence. The history of Turkish cuisine can be considered in its Central Asian, Seljuk and Ottoman periods.

The Central Asian Period (before 1038)

Knowledge about the food and eating habits of the early nomad Turks in Central Asia is rather limited and based on conjecture. It is likely that in common with other nomad tribes, they relied on mutton and horse meat, unleavened pastry or bread made of wheat flour, milk and milk products such as yoghurt. Koumiss, a fermented liquor made from mare's milk, and ayran (= liquid yoghurt) are known to have been drunk. Evidence from communities of Kazan Turks and Tatars in Anatolia, who still observe many Central Asian customs, indicates that a number of foods from the Central Asian period survive today. Mantı (= a kind of ravioli), çörek (= ring-shaped buns), various pies and tarhana (= a kind of dried curds), all originated in Central Asia. One of the earliest written sources on pre-Islamic Turks, the Turcic inscriptions of the Orhun Relics, refers to a funeral ceremony of a ruler of the Göktürks, who established a large empire in Central Asia between the sixth and eighth centuries. It shows that deer and hare were the principal meats of these hunters.

The Seljuk and Principalities Period (1038–1299)

From the time of the Seljuk sultans more written information about food has survived. The Divanu Lugat-i Turk, a dictionary compiled by Kaşgarlı Mahmut in 1072-3 to teach Turkish to the Arabs, not only gives the names of certain foods, but also describes some dishes. Among those described as old Turkish dishes are tutmaç (= noodle soup); yufka (= flat unleavened bread); katma juga or katmer (= layered pastry); ekmek (= bread); yoghurt; ayran; kımız; koumiss; çörek (= a ring-shaped bun); pekmez (= a syrup made of boiled grape juice); and kavut helva, made with cornflour. There are also references to cooking in a pit dug in the earth, to grills and skewers and earthenware cooking pots. The other important written work of the 11th century, by Yusuf Has Hacip, entitled Kutadgu Bilig, The Book of Knowledge, deals with eating habits, feasts and table service rather than dishes. Another work which throws light on the same period is the Dede Korkut Hikayeleri The Tales of Dede Korkut, compiled towards the end of the 14th century. These twelve tales are a rich source of information about the customs of the Oghuz Turks who lived in southwestern Asia. Yahni (= Stew); kebabs (= food on skewers); a soup made of wheat flour and yoghurt called togya çorbası in Anatolia; clotted cream; yoghurt; cheese; beverages like milk, ayran, koumiss and wine were all consumed in The Tales of Dede Korkut. The literary works of Mevlana Jalaluddin-i Rumi, who lived in the 13th entury, contain many references to the food culture of the time. Mevlana, who conceived the philosophy of harmony and co-operation which can unite people in a crucible of love, provides invaluable knowledge on the subject of food.

Many dishes are categorized and described in detail in Mevlana's works; for example meat is stewed with vegetables which may themselves first be stewed or fried; helva may be made with grape syrup (= pekmez helvası) or with almonds (= badem helvası); desserts include sweetened boiled rice with saffron (= zerde) and starch puddings (= paluze). Mevlana's writings show that in 13th century Anatolia the following foods and beverages were common: vegetables such as leeks, aubergines, marrows, celeriac, spinach, turnips, onions, garlic, cucumbers; pulses such as blackeyed beans, lentils, chickpeas, broad beans; fruits such as apples, quinces, pomegranates, pears, peaches, figs, melons, watermelons, dates; nuts such as walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts; milk products such as yoghurt, ayran, cheese; food made with flour such as tutcribed in detail in Mevlana's works: for homemade noodles cooked with flatbread; etli maç (= meat and yoghurt); yufka ekmek (= flat pastry baked with ground meat); börek (= pies); çörek (= ring-shaped buns); tirit (= bread cooked in gravy); sweet foods like honey, grapes and grape syrup, helva, kadayif, zerde; drinks such as sweetened fruit juices and wine. The Mevlevi Order, of whirling dervishes death of Mevlana, established certain rules governing the organization of the kitchen and table manners which are adhered to to this day. In the Mevlevi Order the kitchen is regarded as a sacred hearth, a temple wherein an inexperienced novice matures and becomes accomplished.

The kitchen range, which is the domain of the Ateş Baz-ı Veli (= the Guardian Master Cook), can be looked upon as the altar of this temple. The Aşçı Dede (= the Sheikh Cook) educates the novices in every respect. The Kazancı Dede (= the Sheikh Stoker) is his assistant. An applicant, before becoming apprenticed in a job in the Order, would sit on a sheepskin in an alcove large enough to accommodate one person only, situated immediately to the left of the entrance to the monastery kitchen. From there he would observe for three days the work, behaviour and actions of the disciples assigned to kitchen duties. He would then make up his mind. If he entered the Order, his noviciate would require spending countless days in the kitchen. The heart of the Mevlevi Order beats in the kitchen. The novices shed their personality in the kitchen and give up all sense of pride. In the kitchen they are taught the rules of conduct and work practice. The Master Cook is their head teacher. Eighteen different duties are performed in the kitchen:

01. The Sheikh Stoker is the Sheikh Cook's deputy and as a Superior of the Monastery he is responsible for the administration of the kitchen and the novices.

02. The Halife Dede (= the Assistant Sheikh) trains the newly admitted novices and shows them how to conduct themselves.

03. The Dervish in charge of External Housework conveys to the dervishes in retreat the orders of the Sheikh Cook.

04. The Laundryman sees to the washing of the habits of the Sheikhs and disciples.

05. The Sanitary Cleaner is in charge of sanitation.

06. The Sherbet Maker makes and serves sherbet to the Sheikhs and the disciples who have ended their noviciate.

07. The Dishwasher washes the kitchen crockery and utensils.

08. The Storekeeper oversees the kitchen equipment and acts as tinsmith.

09. The Stores Purchaser is responsible for buying the food and beverages from the market.

10. The Waiter lays and clears the refectory tables for the Sheikhs and disciples.

11. The Dervish in charge of Internal Housework makes the coffee for the Sheikhs and disciples.

12. The Internal Lamps Attendant lights and maintains the oil lamps in the kitchen.

13. The Coffee Master roasts and grinds the coffee.

14. The Bed Maker makes the beds and changes the linen.

15. The External Lamps Attendant lights and maintains the oil lamps in the courtyard.

16. The Sweeper cleans the kitchen and the courtyard.

17. The Candle Attendant lights and attends to the candles.

18. The Footman runs errands.

Mevlana's cook, Ateş Baz-ı Veli (= the Guardian Master Cook), was a prominent personality, about whom the following tale is told. One day Ateş Baz-ı Veli told Mevlana: "There is no more wood to light the cooking range," and Mevlana responded by telling him to place his feet in the range. "All right," said Ateş Baz-i Veli and he proceeded to stretch his legs and put his feet in the range. The flame which burst from his big toes instantly started the cooking pot boiling. However, as doubt crept into his mind that he might suffer burns, his left big toe scorched. Mevlana was informed of what had happened. He came along and sorrowfully remarked: "How could you Ateş Baz?", implying how could he have entertained any doubt. And the cook placed the big toe of his right foot over his scorched left big toe to conceal it in shame.

Ateş Baz-ı Veli, who died in the year 1285, was buried in a mausoleum of red stone, the first cook to have a mausoleum built in his memory in Turkey. It is revealing of the attention devoted to food and the culinary art and the esteem in which a cook was held during that period. There is a widely held belief in Turkey today that to visit the mausoleum of Ates Baz-ı Veli and take away a pinch of salt distributed there, will bring a blessing to the visitors' kitchen, enhance their ooking and prove beneficial for any illness they may suffer from. The Seljuk archives are an invaluable source of information on the period. When the Seljuk ruler Alaaddin Keykubat I (1227–37) arrived for the first time as a monarch in Konya, the capital of the Seljuk empire, there were fireworks and ceremonies the like of which had never been witnessed before, and feasts and drinking parties were organized. In H. T. H. Houtsma's edition of the Seljuk archives, these feasts are described as follows: "Various kinds of rice and stewed marrow dishes, stewed and fried vegetables, meat stews, unpeeled vegetables cooked in hot ashes, roasts, grilled chickens, pigeons, partridges and quail, all in gold and china dishes, were arranged on dais in keeping with the traditions of the two clans of the Oghuz Turkish tribes. Koumiss and a variety of sweetened fruit juices were drunk in accordance with Oghuz customs."

There were many organizations in Anatolia at that time which adhered strictly to the regulations and statutes governing the running of kitchens. Foremost among them were the Wakif societies, religious charitable trusts and foundations which provided many free benefits and services. For example, The Germiyan Oğlu Beyi Yakup Bey soup kitchen in Kütahya provided for its members and for travellers seeking shelter: two meals and four loaves of bread each day; a meat dish each day (both dish and bread had to be excellent); rice and wheat soup; meat, rice and vegetables like spinach and turnips; helva made of flour, butter and sugar and sweet pastry with honey. For those who arrived too late for meals there was butter, cheese and unleavened flatbread. In other establishments of this kind guests were offered hospitality for three days according to custom, but here those who wished could extend their stay for longer.

The Ottoman Period (1299-1923)

During the Ottoman period Turkish cooking became increasingly sophisticated. In the kitchens of the palace and in the homes of the nobles and officials, cooks developed high levels of specialization, and so Istanbul cooking or palace cooking, which is regarded as the pinnacle of Turkish cuisine, was created.

When Sultan Mehmet II. - the Conqueror, captured Constantinople in 1453 he ordered as his first act the building of a palace where he could reside. In a famous imperial decree he laid down the conventions to be followed at the court, the rules of protocol to be observed and the table manners to be adhered to in the Topkapı Palace (completed in 1478). The manner in which food was to be prepared and served for the sovereign, his ministers, the court treasury dignitaries and other members of the palace staff was set out. At the time of Mehmet II the palace kitchen complex comprised four main areas, of which the most important was the Kuşhane – the bird cage kitchen, named after a small cooking pot. In this kitchen only food for the sovereign was prepared in small quantities and in small vessels. The second kitchen, known as the Has Mutfak - the sovereign's kitchen, was where food destined for the mother of the sultan, the princes and the privileged members of the harem was prepared. The other kitchens included the kitchens of the harem, the chief eunuch, the imperial state chancery and members of the palace household according to their ranks.

The member of the household responsible for the kitchens was the head butler and he, with the chefs who headed the kitchen and the kitchen superintendent, who was responsible for materials and provisions, formed the triumvirate of personnel who ran the kitchen. During the reign of Mehmet II the kitchen staff included bakers, dessert cooks, helva makers, pickle makers, the chief yoghurt maker etc. The move towards culinary specialization already witnessed in the Mevlevi monastery in the 13th century had been accomplished by the 15th. The entire staff in the palace kitchens strove to produce dishes that were exquisite, and experimented with new ideas to improve existing dishes.

The nobles and officials entertained each other regularly and competed to provide the best food. Those who boasted kitchens of the same excellence as the palace kitchens saw their fame spread, and the sultans honoured them by paying them a visit. Thus, during the reign of Sultan Mehmet II, the Grand Mufti Abdullah Molla (the head of the Islamic establishment who ranked second to the Grand Vizier, the head of government) became famous for his generosity, wealth, nobility and cuisine. One evening, at the time of breaking the fast during Ramadan, the sultan gathered his ministers and paid an unannounced visit to the mufti's residence. The butler, finding himself face to face with the sultan, hurried excitedly to his master. The mufti urged the butler not to panic and told him to serve the sultan with his own meal and to give the other guests two or three trays of food reserved for the harem. After the meal the sultan remarked on the succulence of the dishes and admired the service and the tableware, although he wondered why the dried fruit compote (= hoşaf) which followed the rice dish had not been served in as attractive a bowl as the rest. The mufti explained that in order not to spoil the texture of the fruit, he did not allow chips of ice to be added to it, but instead had the juice frozen in a mould fashioned like a bowl and served the compote in that. Just as in the palace kitchens, all Ottoman grand houses employed staff who specialized in particular aspects of the culinary art. At this period various chefs' guilds were organized in the capital and to this day they continue to play an important role in perpetuating and improving old recipes. Under Ottoman rule only the best ingredients were brought into Istanbul, and the sale of inferior foods was prevented under a system of very strict control. This fact, together with the lively competition between cooks and confectioners to provide the best, ensured that high standards were always maintained.Among the various confectioners who have been carrying on their trade since time immemorial in Istanbul, the muhallebiciler, the makers and sellers of milk dishes are unique. Even though rare these days, one can still come across their shops in Istanbul selling chicken soup, rice cooked with chicken, tavuk göğsü (= blancmange with thin strips of breast of chicken), and similar milk dishes and light desserts.

Here we must also mention the street traders, who, in the Istanbul of bygone days used to make and sell special kinds of food. There was the çörekçı (= maker of sweet buns); börekçı (= maker of savoury pastries); simitçı (= maker of bread rolls); kağit helvacı (= maker of pastry wafers with sweetmeat); pogaçacı (= maker of various kinds of pies); the lokmacı (= fritter maker); gözlemeci (= pancake maker); lokum ve şekerlemeci maker of lokum (= Turkish delight) helva maker; and sweet maker; helvacı (= helva maker), kelle-paçacı (= maker of sheep's head and trotters soup); pilavci (= maker of rice dishes); köfteci (= maker of meatballs); and so on. In my opinion the most original of them all were the ones who plied their trade in boats selling fried fish. In the past these traders used to fish in Istanbul's clean sea, prepare and wash in sea water the freshly caught fish, and after dipping them in flour, fry them in oil on charcoal stoves in their boats, put them with chopped onions in half a loaf of bread sliced through the middle and sell them. For passengers waiting to depart on ships and ferries moored along the quay or the crowds on the shore, it was a pleasure to buy fish from these boats and to eat them. Two or three such boats still survive.

Turkish cuisine owes its development and survival to this day to the practical culinary expertise which the palace, the grand houses and the numerous associations of cooks and confectioners passed on from generation to generation. The Turkish saying "Never mind what you ate and drank, tell me where you have been and what you have seen", shows it was considered bad manners to talk about food and this is why there is little culinary literature in Turkish.

Apart from some dictionaries and medical books based on early studies which gave descriptions of dishes or definitions of foodstuffs, the first cookery book was a translated work entitled "Tabh-i Et'ime" (= Instruction in Cookery) believed to have been translated from the Arabic "Kitabut-Tabih" (= The Book of Cookery) in the 15th century by Şirvani. Other noteworthy books are "Ağıdiye Risalesi" (= The Manual of Nourishment) by Abdullah Efendi, and "Yemek Risalesi" (= A Manual of Dishes) by unknown authors published in the 18th century. The "Melceu't Tabbahin" (= The Sanctuary of Cooks), compiled in 1844 by Mehmet Kamil was the first cookery book to be printed by lithography; it was later translated into English by Turabi Efendi. The 20th century books which deserve most attention are "Yemek Kitabı" (= A Book of Recipes), and "Tatlıcı Başı" (= The Dessert Chef), written in the old Turkish script based on the Arabic alphabet by Hadiye Fahriye and published in 1924 and 1926 respectively. Although by this time some foreign influences could be found in Turkish cookery there is little sign of it in these two works which offer classic Turkish cuisine. However, later cookery books carry many traces of foreign cuisine, and today there is a conscious effort to eliminate these traces and restore Turkish cooking to its origins.

There has undoubtedly been a great deal of cross-fertilization in the development of Turkish food. When the Turks came west from central Asia they borrowed elements from the cookery of the countries they traversed, and also adopted some of the foods of earlier Anatolian civilizations, An important character of Turkish cuisine is its ability to assimilate whatever it has borrowed and produce a successful synthesis. There are of course several culinary similarities with the food of neighbouring regions which have much the same climate and vegetation. For instance the red cabbage soup of the Black Sea region resembles Russian borscht; some desserts and meatballs made with boiled and pounded wheat are like those of Turkey's southern neighbours; while pilaki dishes of stewed fish or beans served cold have their counterparts in Greek cooking.

Börek (= savoury pastries); kebabs; baklava (= a pastry dessert with syrup and nuts); yoghurt; lokum (= Turkish delight); and Turkish coffee have all spread abroad from Turkey. Çerkez tavuğu (= Circassian chicken); arnavut ciğeri (= Albanian liver); kürt köftesi (= Kurdish meatballs); arap köftesi (= Arab meatballs), are examples of foreign foods widely found in Turkish and Anatolian cuisine. These days some adaptations of western dishes are to be seen too.

The Influence of Islam in Turkish Cuisine and forbidden foods

Following the conversion of the Turks to Islam in the ninth century, Islamic influences became apparent in Turkish cuisine and indeed in other cultural spheres. As well as introducing the practice of observing certain holy days and eating some foods considered sacred, Islam also brought certain restrictions concerning food and drink. According to the restrictions laid down in the Koran four foods are strictly forbidden in the Islamic world: the meat of animals that have died by means other than having their throats cut; blood from an animal's body; pork; and the meat of an animal slaughtered as a sacrifice in the name other than God. The Koran makes no reference to meat derived from "loathsome" animals: reptiles and beasts of prey, but its consumption is considered harmful by Islamic scholars, although it is not forbidden in canonical terms. Prevalent opinion about the consumption of aquatic animals is that it is canonically lawful. The Koran states: "To fish in the sea and to consume the catch is lawful for you and the travellers as a means of subsistence." Taking the message of this verse one step further, it is considered lawful to eat crustaceans killed by means other than the correct ritual, and also locusts among terrestrial insects.

Although in the Islamic world preference is given to meat from an animal slaughtered by a Moslem, it is permitted to eat meat from animals slaughtered by members of other faiths with their own scriptures. However, the manner of slaughtering must conform to the Moslem rite, in other words the throat of the animal must be slit. As to beverages, the Koran forbids alcoholic drinks, but the fact that the Koran uses the term "wine" has led lovers of alcoholic drinks to argue that they are not forbidden. However, the Prophet Mohammed said: "That which causes any form of inebriation is wine and any kind of wine is forbidden." The restrictions are waived when canonically lawful nourishment to relieve hunger and thirst or to treat an illness are not available. In such circumstances a Moslem may consume what is normally forbidden.

These restrictions apart, Islam brought to Turkish social life and cuisine new customs and rituals, and was responsible for certain foods assuming a sacred significance. In Islam the month of Ramadan is the month of fasting, observed throughout the country. There are also five Kandil nights; religious feast nights, when the minarets of mosques are illuminated. The dates and months refer to the Arabic Calendar based on the lunar year, which is still used in the Islamic world to determine the dates of religious events. The twelfth night of Rebiüis the Prophet Mohammed's birthday. Mohammed's birthday. The first Friday of Receb - the seventh month - is known as Ragaib Kandili, and marks the Prophet Mohamed's conception; that is the night when, it is believed, one's prayers are answered. The 27th night of Receb is known as Mirac Kandili, the night of Prophet Mohammed's ascent to heaven. The 15th night of Şaban – the eighth month – is Berat Gecesi, the Night of Privilege, when the future actions of an individual for the following year are considered, decreed and duly noted by the angels. The night of the 27th of Ramadan – the ninth month – is the Kandil Gecesi, the night of Power, the night the Koran was revealed to the world. During the day preceding these feasts it is a widely observed tradition throughout Anatolia to make and distribute three sacred foods which, according to popular folklore, represent Mohammed's seal: lokma (= fritters); the Prophet's written edict: katmer (= flaky pastry); and his blessing: pişi (= fried puff pastry). Aşura, which falls on the 10th of Muharrem – the first month - is a popular feast day. Believing that on this day God granted his nine prophets favours and created the heavens, people celebrate the occasions with great enthusiasm and exchange gifts of aşure a sweet made of cereals, rice, sugar, fresh and dried fruit and milk.

The layout of a kitchen

In old Turkish houses the kitchen was divided into two sections, the pantry and the kitchen proper. Usually the pantry was located in an area sheltered from the sun and had small windows to provide good ventilation and a door leading into the kitchen. Goods which had to be stored for a long time were kept in the pantry. Around the pantry walls a step was built some 5-10cm / 2-3 inches above the ground. On this would rest rows of jars containing oil, preserves, grape syrup, honey, pickles, each jar covered with lacework, and similar foodstuffs grouped together in neat sections. Sucuk (= sausages), and pastırma (= dried meat seasoned with cumin and garlic) were hung in muslin bags on hooks on the wall or from wooden poles. Fruit such as grapes, melons and pears to be stored for the winter were also hung up and preserved. Dry goods such as flour, pulses, rice and cracked wheat, were likewise kept in the pantry and taken out as required for daily use in the kitchen. In the kitchen the range was placed under a chimney hood which drew away unpleasant smells. A basin and a fountain were provided for washing up. Above and to one side of the basin-stand were rows of shelves rising from floor level, the bottom ones wide enough to take frying pans and saucepans, and the upper ones narrower for china. In a convenient place stood a large wire-mesh corner cupboard, which held cooked dishes and daily foodstuffs. Resting on the floor long padded seats and cushions were placed facing each other, which made it possible to work seated when one was preparing vegetables and fruit or rolling out pastry.

The kitchen range apart, two types of braziers were used: the mangal brazier which used charcoal for cooking a wide range of dishes, and the maltız brazier which used coke for cooking dishes needing intense heat such as sheep's head, trotters and tripe. Food that needed cooking in an oven was sent to the local bakery. Kitchens were generally laid out in the same fashion, but sometimes special regional features such as a tandır, a pit dug in the earth and used as an oven in southern Anatolia, would be added.

Kitchen utensils

The utensils used in the Turkish kitchen can be described according to the material they are made from.

Wooden utensils: the most important utensils in every home are the pastry board, the kneading trough, the circular tambour, a frame or folding trestle that supports the large tray which serves as a meal table, various sizes of rolling pins, spoons used in cooking and for eating, and a spoon container.

Copper utensils: large round trays that serve as a meal table, bowls, drinking vessels, a shallow saucepan with handles, trays, cooking pots, yoghurt and milk buckets, large deep serving dishes, plates, perforated and solid ladles, strainers, frying pans, cleavers, carrying bowls.

Brass utensils: a mortar, coffee grinder, pitchers for salep (= the powdered root of Orchis mascula mixed with milk as a hot drink in winter) and şerbet (= sweetened fruit juice)

Enamel utensils: all sizes of saucepans, coffee jugs, a hot water pot and teapot (designed so that the latter sits on top of the former as a single unit).

Earthenware utensils: various sizes of casseroles with lids, small soup bowls for individual helpings, a fish kettle and tray, pitchers, water jugs, and bowls.

Porcelain ware: dinner service, coffee service, salep service, and crockery.

Glassware: water glasses, şerbet glasses, tea service, dessert plates and bowls.

Other wares: sweetmeat and other dessert moulds, vinegar holder, salt dispenser, meat grilling skewers, griddle, stone and iron mortars.

Meals and manners

From the times of the Seljuks to the present day, the Turks generally adopted the habit of having four meals a day, two main meals and two light refreshments. The first meal is prepared for the time when the family elders depart for work, that is, after morning prayers and some two hours before the midday call to prayers. This meal is known as Kuşluk Yemeği, the literal translation is "aviary meal", signifying small in quantity, like breadcrumbs for birds. At noon, with the menfolk away, food remaining from the previous evening or a light snack serves for lunch. The second main meal of the day, prepared after the evening prayers, is the dinner, which brings the family together at home. For this meal the best dishes are painstakingly prepared. The fourth meal of the day, which is eaten just before retiring, especially during the long winter evenings, is known in central Anatolia as Yat Geber Ekmeği (= Hit the Pillow and Drop Dead) - a supper of break - fast foods, fruit, sweetened buns, pastries. It is said the meal got its name because men who stayed out drinking all evening would return home in the middle of the night and beg their wives to produce breakfast or soup to soak up their drinks. The wife, annoyed at her husband, but remaining silent o' respect for him, would mutter to herself: "Take this, hit the pillow and drop dead and don't bother me any more.' These daily meals naturally differed in families particularly keen on food or when guests were invited; then lunch, for instance, would be treated as a main meal.

The following notes appear in the 11th century "Kutadgu Bilig" (= The Book of Knowledge) concerning meals and table manners: "Let your home, your dining table and your plates be clean. Let your room be furnished with padded cushions and let your food and beverages be freshly made. The food and beverages must be clean and tasty too, to encourage your guests to enjoy their meal. The food and beverages to be consumed during the meal must be complementary and plentiful.The beverages to be offered to the guests must not be lacking in quantity and the accompaniments to each course must always be ready to serve. As beverages, offer either fuka (= a sweet juice made of cereal grains and fruit) or mizab (= drinking water) or rose honey and sweet ened rose juice. When the meal is over, serve delicacies and fruit. Alongside dried and fresh fruit offer simis (= marrow seeds soaked in salt water and then fried) as a delicacy. Finally, if your circumstances permit, present the guests with gifts. If you are wealthy, make a present of silk materials, and if possible end the occasion with a very special gift to render the visitors speechless."

In the 13th century the rules governing table manners in the Mevlevi monastery were as follows: "When the food was cooked and ready in the kitchen, the Kazan Dede (= the Sheikh Stoker) took the lid off the large cooking pot or saucepan and the disciples bowed down to the ground. The Sheikh Stoker recited a prayer; the table was laid in the kitchen and sheepskin rugs were placed all around it. One of the disciples then proceeded to the chambers of the Dervishes and called out: "The meal is served', and repeated this summons for the benefit of the novices. Around the edge of the large metal tray which served as a table small towels were laid. The spoons were placed facing downwards with the handles pointing to the right. The head of the monastic order, the Head Dervish or the Aşçı Dede (= The Sheikh Cook) also sat at the table; all the dervishes and disciples known as Mevlevis took their places at the table. Strict silence was observed during the meal. The meal began with a prayer, and by tasting a pinch of salt taken from the salt cellar placed on the table; likewise a pinch of salt was taken at the end of the meal and the meal ended with a prayer. The disciples whose duty it was to serve water prepared the pitchers, and after filling the tumbler of the individual who has signalled his need for water, the disciple concerned lifted the tumbler, kissed it and handed it back. The individual receiving the tumbler also kissed it and then drank the water. During the performance of this rite, those seated at the table refrained from helping themselves to food and from eating, and those with food in their mouths stopped chewing. The Sheikh Cook then addressed the individual who drank the water with the words 'well done' and those assembled resumed eating. The meal was eaten from a common serving dish. With the thought that 'the leftovers of a believer are beneficial to another believer' each course was finished up. After the end-of-meal prayer and grace had been said, the disciples Mevlevis and the Dervishes left the table in silence in an atmosphere of piety."

Today in traditional homes, particularly in the Anatolian countryside, these customs still persist, and meals are served in the old manner on the floor. Everyone washes his hands and takes a place at the table. The elder of the family starts the meal after saying grace. Everyone helps himself from a large common serving dish placed in the middle. For soup, rice and stewed fruit spoons are used. Other dishes are eaten by hand, though nowadays forks are also used. If someone leaves the table no-one touches the food until that person returns. When the meal is over, grace is said and the elders leave the table first.

Certain practices have to be observed in eating food by hand. Meatballs, grilled or roasted meat, stuffed vegetables and so on are picked up by one end and eaten. Dishes in gravy or sauce must be eaten without dipping one's fingers in the juice. Usually such dishes are eaten with bread. (Bread is the Turk's staple food and everything else is considered as supplementary.) The thumb, index and middle fingers are used to pick up the food. The piece of vegetable or meat nearest to the edge of the common serving dish is pulled to the very edge with a piece of bread held between index and middle finger. Then the morsel of food is grasped from underneath with the thumb (often this is not necessary as soft food such as helva would stick to the bread) and lifted to the mouth. Meat on the bone is eaten by holding one end of the bone. Wet flannels sprinkled with rosewater are provided and used at intervals to wipe the hands and mouth.

When the meal is over an end-of-meal prayer is said. If time is pressing, the shorter form of prayer is said with the words "In the name of God, thanks be to God, glory be to God". Then the final morsel of food is taken and it is customary to pick this last morsel from the furthest part of the serving dish. (It is believed that by doing so one is reunited in spirit with friends and relatives who are away from home). Then everyone leaves the table and once hands are washed, coffee is served.

Table setting and service

The Turks of Central Asia used to take their meals on a linen or leather ground sheet called a "kendürük", which was spread out on the floor, whereas in the 11th century they used a tepsi (= a large tray). In those days Turkish architecture did not provide for a separate dining room in the home; at meal times a table was laid in the main room and food was served there. Even at the Topkapı Palace residence of the Ottoman sultans there is no separate dining hall and meals were served on dining tables laid in different parts of the palace.

Today a traditional Turkish meal table is laid on the floor as follows: first of all a "table-cloth" is spread on the floor to prevent bread and food from soiling the floor. On it is placed a large tray resting upon a tambour, a circular frame, or a trestle so as to raise it to the correct height. A wooden soup spoon for each person is laid either around the soup tureen or around the edge of the table according to personal preference. If individual napkins are provided, these are placed on the spoons; if not, one long napkin cloth is laid, stretching all round the table. Tumblers, water jugs, dishes of food and desserts are placed on a smaller tray close by. Small hand towels soaked in hot soapy water and sprinkled with toilet water, usually rosewater, are provided to wipe the hands now and again. Before starting the meal, a hand-washing bowl and a jug of water are brought in and hands are washed, beginning with the children, then everyone sits down to eat.

The meal begins with the soup tureen being placed in the middle of the table, and then the mother or the daughter of the household, if there is no servant, brings in the dishes, collects the empty plates and serves the next course. Ayran (= yoghurt drink); Şerbet (= sweetened fruit juices); Şurup (= syrups); and salads and pickles are placed on the table as additional delicacies. When the dessert or stewed fruit is served, special dessert spoons are handed round. If little children are present, a separate small serving dish might be placed on the table for their benefit. When the meal is over the table is cleared, once again the hand-washing bowl is brought in and hands are washed, the elders first this time. Then coffee and tobacco for the men, are offered.

Menus and meals for special occasions

The first recorded banquet is Yuğ, the mourning feast to be seen on the Orhun relics. In the 11th century, during religious holidays or for the marriages of a khan, banquet meals, known as Kenc Liyu, were stacked in the form of a minaret, rising to a height of 30 arşın (an archaic Turkish measure equalling approximately 70 cm / 28 inches) for the public to demolish and consume.

In the same century Yusuf Has Hacip had the following to say about arranging menus and the rules to be followed at a banqueting table: "If too great a heat is felt as a result of eating too many hot dishes, immediately drink something cold. If you are in the springtime of your life, then show preference for colder things, for your blood will warm them up. If you are over 40 years of age and in the autumn of your life, regulate your disposition with hot things. If you are of 60 years of age and in your winter, eat hot things and do not flirt with cold things. If you have consumed too many dry and cold foods, keep hot and fresh things in readiness (in order to avoid their detrimental effects). If you feel your old age and the cold too much, fortify yourself with heat. If you have a hot temperament, nurture yourself with cold things. If you wish to be always healthy and never to suffer from indisposition, eat in moderation and live by this rule. If you wish to enjoy a long life in complete peace of mind, then be quiet and hold your tongue, and live by this rule, ye pure-hearted being. "Do not start to eat before your elders. Always begin your meal by saying grace and eat with your right hand. Do not touch the food in front of another person, and eat what is nearest to you. Do not produce a knife at the table and do not strip a bone clean, do not be too voracious and do not slouch. But, however sated you might feel, show pleasure and keenness in accepting the food that is offered to you and in consuming it so that the lady of the house, who prepared the dishes, can be pleased. In this way render worthwhile the effort of those who took the trouble of entertaining you to a meal. Bite what you put into your mouth and chew it slowly. Do not blow with your mouth over hot food. When you are eating do not slouch over the table and do not disturb the people next to you. Eat in a measured manner, for a person should always eat and drink little. A Turkish meal is generally composed of soup, a main course of meat, rice or stuffed savoury pastry, a vegetable dish and a dessert, and provides as much variety as possible within that sequence. Banqueting menus exist offering a selection of up to 100 dishes for banquets at the palace in Istanbul and up to 40 dishes in Anatolia. Nowadays a formal set menu is likely to consist of soup, an egg dish, fish, meat, poultry or game, vegetables cooked with fat or olive oil, börek (= stuffed savoury pastry), rice or pasta, desserts, fruit and coffee.

In a 16th century work entitled "Banqueting Arrangements", it is suggested that a drinks supper table should be decorated with flowers and sprinkled with rose petals. Essential at such a function were roasts cooked rare, sour-flavoured soups, fried food, meatballs; various kinds of fish and shellfish were served as meze or hors d'oeuvres. It recommends providing at least 40 or 50 different items in the meze and that hazelnuts, pistachios and almonds should be plentiful; that the table should be overflowing with fish roe, caviar and various kinds of pastırma (= dried meat seasoned with cumin and garlic) and that except for rice, heavy foods such as stuffed pastry and the like should be avoided. It is said that in later years drinks suppers with roughly the same variety of food were provided at various taverns in Istanbul and that the district of "Yedi Kule" (= Seven Towers) acquired a reputation especially for its mezes. Today the locality is known as Çiçek Pasajı (= Flower Alley) in Istanbul; it is famous for its drinks and mezes. At drinks parties now the cold dishes are laid out on the table and hot dishes are brought in in turn and served. Tripe soup is the customary end to an evening of this kind. Another special supper, which survives in a few homes in Anatolia, is the helva supper. Helva suppers originated in Istanbul in the homes of the well-connected headed by Ibrahim Pasha and his sons-in-law during the reign of Sultan Ahmet III (1703-30, the Tulip Period). Helva was served following sessions of discussion and various forms of entertainment. Sultan Ahmet III used to attend many of these helva gatherings.

In Turkish cuisine there is a special place for the Sahur and Iftar meals, the meals taken before and at the end of the daily period of abstinence during the religious month of fasting. Fasting during the month of Ramadan, which is one of the five essential requirements of Islam, is an act of piety undertaken by going without food or drink from about an hour before the morning prayer until the call to evening prayer. In the olden days in Istanbul, Ramadan was greeted in a festive atmosphere and it livened up social life. Illuminations strung up between minarets were all lit up, the hours of Iftar and Sahur were heralded with the beating of drums and the firing of a cannon; throughout the month entertainments and games were organized at "Direklerarası Amusement Park". In preparation homes were smartened up a month ahead, stocks of foodstuffs were topped up, some of the food purchased for Ramadan in grand houses was donated to the widows and poor ladies of families of the district. The Iftar meal was prepared before the call to evening prayer. Before the Iftar meal the fast was broken by first taking breakfast in order not to fill an empty stomach with rich and heavy food. Having breakfasted, evening prayer was said (some well-to-do families acquired the services of an Imam for the duration of Ramadan), and thereafter everyone gathered together for the Iftar meal. On the breakfast tray which served as a table there appeared various jams, honey, cheese, caviar, olives, sausages, pastirma - all especially prepared for Ramadan. Alongside these would be fresh fruit, salads, cups of blessed water, dates and mustard. Small plates bearing lemons cut in half and wrapped in muslin and tied with coloured ribbons were onveniently placed on the table to serve both as a decoration and as receptacles for depositing fruit stones. White bread; pide (= slightly leavened flat bread); çörek (= ring-shaped sweetened buns); simit (= ring-shaped bread), completed the breakfast fare. The Iftar meal always ended with dried fruit compote. The special dessert for Ramadan known as güllaç (= starch wafers filled with nuts, and milky syrup flavoured made repeat appearances on the menu every two or three days. The people of Istanbul used to be particularly keen on işkembe çorbası (= tripe soup). As the time for breaking the fast approached, queues formed in front of the premises of tripe soup sellers. If an Iftar banquet or dinner was being given, then gifts were presented at the end as customary at all banquets or formal dinners. In some houses in Istanbul a tiny gold nugget fashioned in the shape of a chickpea was inserted in a dish of rice and chickpeas for a lucky winner to find. The person in whose spoon the gold chickpea was discovered received the principal gift.

After the Iftar meal came the superogatory night prayers and then everyone proceeded to the entertainment parks where until Sahur they were entertained with concerts of string music, theatrical performances, karagöz (= the Turkish shadow-show puppet shows) and story tellers. Sahur meals were made up of lighter dishes because after a heavy meal one felt rather satiated. Moreover, a heavy meal might cause thirst. The Sahur meal of a middle-class family consisted of dishes such as minced meat wrapped in vine leaves, macaroni with minced meat or cheese, meatballs and fruit compote. These days the Iftar and Sahur meals are much the same, but without the gift heralded by the discovery of a gold chickpea! The custom of friends and relatives entertaining each other to meals during Ramadan continues.

Turkish cuisine and the regional differences of our day

Turkish cooking today covers classic Turkish cuisine, or palace cuisine, which evolved in Istanbul from the imperial palace, noble homes and chefs' guilds, and which today is practised only in private homes; international cuisine, largely served in tourist restaurants and hotels; and popular Turkish cuisine which thrives in Anatolian dishes based on regional produce. Many of these dishes, although described in old documents, were unknown in Istanbul and never incorporated into the classic repertoire. Ekmek dolmasi, a loaf of bread stuffed with meat and cooked in a bain-marie, and haşhaşli çörek (= ring-shaped poppy seed cakes) come from the Aegean region; saksuka (= vegetable stew with aubergines), peppers, potatoes, tomatoes and garlic; and kabak helvası (= a dessert made with marrow), are from the Mediterranean region; maş piyazi (= a dish of mung beans and onions); and külünce (= a highly spiced pastry), are from southeastern Anatolia; keledos (= a dish of pulses), vegetables and meat; and mirtoğa (= a spicy sweetish cheese), are from eastern Anatolia; hamsi pilavi (= a dish of rice and anchovies); and lahana çorbasi (= red cabbage soup) are from the Black Sea region; çebiç (= lamb cooked on a spit); and arabasi (= chicken and vegetable soup) are from central Anatolia; none of these dishes are found in Istanbul cuisine and all of them are based on the produce of the region. Now a comprehensive study of popular Turkish cuisine is underway, and work on recipes recorded in archives has been attracting attention in recent years. When these recipes, many of which date back to the earliest history of the Turks, are brought to light, and recipes of present day and recent Anatolian dishes are properly recorded, and all this material is looked at together with the recipes of Istanbul cuisine, the true characteristics of Turkish cooking will emerge and it will then be possible to appreciate it in its entirety. Now let us consider the regional features of Turkish cooking. Anatolia is made up of seven geographic regions:

The Marmara region takes in the centre of Turkish cuisine - Istanbul. This region is well known for the sunflower oil produced in its most western part, Thrace (European Turkey), and for the cheese of Edirne. The Anatolian part is particularly rich in vegetables and fruit. Bursa is the town which gave birth, as it were, to the döner kebab – meat roasted on a revolving vertical spit, and Bolu is the town from which came the most famous cooks of Ottoman days, and many of the best chefs still come from there.

The Aegean region is renowned for its fish and seafood: the produce of the southern part which stretches down the coast from Izmir is the most sought-after in Turkey, and there is a great variety of leaf vegetable dishes.

The Mediterranean region, despite being a coastal region, does not have a great variety of fish and consequently of fish dishes; this is probably due to over-fishing and pollution. The western part bordering on the lower end of the Aegean region is much richer in produce.

The eastern part, like the neighbouring region of southeastern Anatolia, is well known for its acılı kebab (= meat roasted with hot peppers), and bulgurlu köfte (= meatballs with boiled and pounded wheat). Adana kebab and şalgam suyu (= turnip juice) also deserve attention.

Southeastern Anatolia offers the best examples of the Turkish range of roast meats, an art in itself. The town of Gaziantep probably has the widest range of meat dishes and also has excellent baklava (= a diamond-shaped sweet pastry made with pistachio nuts) and produced here on a commercial scale. Çiğ köfte (= spiced raw meatballs) and peynirlı kadayıf (= sweet pastry made with cheese), are the specialities of Şanli Urfa. Künefe is one of the noteworthy dishes of Antakya (the ancient town of Antioch). The town of Diyarbakır has a rich array of traditional dishes, including bumbar (= a kind of sausage), kelle-paça (= sheep's head and trotter soup), kaburga dolmasi (= breast of kid), all found in restaurants. And a favourite at home is a delicious dessert called nuriye, a wafery sweet pastry filled with nuts and milky syrup. Eastern Anatolia, which has a cold climate, is the region of grain and cereal production and livestock farming. Butter, yoghurt, ayran, cheese, honey, cereals and pulses shape the character of the local cooking. Ayran soup, keledos (= a dish of beans), meat and vegetables, and kürt köftesi (kurdish meatballs), are famed specialities. Dishes prepared with yoghurt are flavoured with the aromatic herbs to be found in the mountains of the region. Tea, of course, is the region's legendary beverage, so much so that in the villages, even in quite poor families, they still employ a "tea-minder" in the home who keeps everyone supplied with tea at all times. Butter and honey from Kars, the delicious cheese known as "sirmo ve mendu" from Van, prepared with herbs picked on the mountains during the months of April and May and matured in earthen-ware jars buried upside down in the ground; from Erzincan cheese in a goatskin container known as tomast, so good one can never get enough of it: these are the foods to taste in the region.

The mere mention of the Black Sea region immediately brings to mind food prepared with fish and especially anchovies. There are at least 40 different anchovy dishes, and many ballads, poems and anecdotes written about anchovies! The second thing for which this region is famous is maize flour and dishes made with it, such as kaymak. Green and red cabbage are popular here, and hamsiköy sütlacı (= literally "anchovy village rice pudding") a savoury dish with a reputation that extends beyond the regional border. The region is renowned for tea cultivated in the Rize area.

Central Anatolia has developed an excellent cuisine by virtue of the fact that, along-side cereal cultivation and livestock rearing, it produces all kinds of fruit and vegetables. Konya, which was the capital of the Seljuk Turks, has achieved distinction in terms of both its food industry and its domestic cooking. Spurred on by the same competitive spirit and desire to produce the best which prevailed in the grand houses of Istanbul, Konya's home cooking offers examples of excellence and richness the like of which I have not encountered anywhere else. Etli ekmek (= bread cooked with meat), peynirlı pide (= flat leavened bread cooked with cheese), and fırın kebabı (= a particular of roasting meat), are dishes which are way constantly praised. Other noteworthy dishes of the region include Ankara tavası (= an Ankara dish made with chickpeas), grapes, nuts and meat boiled and then cooked in the oven; pastirma (= dried meat seasoned with cumin and garlic), and mantı (= stuffed pasta), all specialities of Kayseri (= ancient Caeserea).